Introduction About Phd In (Pharmaceutical Chemistry)

Pharmaceutical Chemistry Is A Specialized Field Of Study That Focuses On The Development, Design, And Synthesis Of Drugs. It Encompasses A Deep Understanding Of The Chemical And Biochemical Processes Involved In Drug Discovery, Development, And Production.

The Significance Of Pharmaceutical Chemistry In The Healthcare Industry

Pharmaceutical Chemistry Plays A Pivotal Role In The Healthcare Industry By Ensuring The Creation Of Safe And Effective Medications. It Bridges The Gap Between The Chemical Sciences And The Medical Field, Contributing To The Development Of Innovative Drugs To Treat Various Medical Conditions.

Pursuing A Phd In Pharmaceutical Chemistry: An Overview

A Phd In Pharmaceutical Chemistry Is An Advanced Research-Based Program That Equips Students With In-Depth Knowledge And Expertise In The Field. It Prepares Individuals For Careers In Academia, Research Institutions, Pharmaceutical Companies, And Regulatory Agencies.

Eligibility Criteria For Phd In Pharmaceutical Chemistry

To Be Eligible For A Phd Program In Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Candidates Typically Need A Master's Degree In A Related Field. Additionally, Strong Analytical, Research, And Problem-Solving Skills Are Crucial For Success In This Program.

Choosing The Right Institution For Your Phd Program

Selecting The Right Institution For Your Phd Is A Critical Decision. Consider Factors Such As Faculty Expertise, Research Facilities, Industry Connections, And Funding Opportunities When Making Your Choice.

Curriculum And Research Areas In Phd Pharmaceutical Chemistry Programs

Phd Programs In Pharmaceutical Chemistry Cover A Wide Range Of Subjects Including Medicinal Chemistry, Pharmacology, Drug Design, And More. Research Areas May Include Drug Synthesis, Formulation, And Drug Delivery Systems.

Research Opportunities And Industry Collaborations

Many Phd Programs Offer Opportunities For Collaborative Research With Pharmaceutical Companies. This Provides Students With Real-World Experience And Exposure To Industry Practices.

Dissertation And Thesis Work In Phd Pharmaceutical Chemistry

One Of The Highlights Of A Phd Program Is The Opportunity To Conduct Original Research And Contribute To The Advancement Of Pharmaceutical Science. Students Will Be Required To Defend Their Dissertation Or Thesis Before A Panel Of Experts.

Career Prospects After Obtaining A Phd In Pharmaceutical Chemistry

A Phd In Pharmaceutical Chemistry Opens Doors To A Wide Range Of Career Options. Graduates Can Pursue Roles In Academia, Research And Development, Drug Discovery, Regulatory Affairs, And More.

Professional Development And Networking For Phd Graduates

Building A Professional Network Is Essential For Career Growth. Attending Conferences, Workshops, And Seminars Can Provide Opportunities To Connect With Experts And Potential Employers.

Funding And Scholarships For Phd Students In Pharmaceutical Chemistry

Many Institutions Offer Funding Options, Scholarships, And Grants To Support Phd Students. It's Important To Explore These Opportunities To Alleviate Financial Burdens During Your Studies.

Challenges And Rewards Of Pursuing A Phd In Pharmaceutical Chemistry

While The Journey Towards A Phd Can Be Demanding, The Rewards Are Substantial. Contributing To Scientific Knowledge And Making A Positive Impact On Healthcare Are Fulfilling Aspects Of This Path.

Success Stories Of Phd Graduates In Pharmaceutical Chemistry

Highlighting Success Stories Of Phd Graduates Can Provide Inspiration And Motivation To Aspiring Researchers. Their Contributions To The Field Serve As A Testament To The Value Of Pursuing Advanced Education In Pharmaceutical Chemistry.

How Can I Apply For Admission To Phd In (Pharmaceutical Chemistry) Program

To Apply For Admission To A Phd Program In Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Follow These Steps:

Research Programs And Institutions: Start By Researching Universities And Institutions That Offer Phd Programs In Pharmaceutical Chemistry. Look For Institutions With Strong Faculty, Research Facilities, And A Curriculum That Aligns With Your Interests And Career Goals.

Check Eligibility Requirements: Review The Eligibility Criteria For The Phd Program. Typically, You Will Need A Master's Degree In A Related Field, Such As Chemistry Or Pharmaceutical Sciences. Some Programs May Also Require Specific Prerequisite Courses Or A Minimum Gpa.

Prepare Application Materials:

Transcripts: Obtain Official Transcripts From All Previous Academic Institutions You Have Attended.

Letters Of Recommendation: Request Letters Of Recommendation From Professors Or Professionals Who Can Speak To Your Academic And Research Abilities.

Statement Of Purpose: Write A Compelling Statement Of Purpose That Outlines Your Research Interests, Career Goals, And Why You Are Interested In Pursuing A Phd In Pharmaceutical Chemistry.

Resume/Cv: Provide A Detailed Resume Or Curriculum Vitae Highlighting Your Academic Achievements, Research Experience, And Any Relevant Publications Or Presentations.

Standardized Test Scores: Some Programs May Require Gre (Graduate Record Examination) Scores. Check The Specific Requirements Of The Programs You Are Applying To.

Prepare For Interviews (If Required): Some Institutions May Require An Interview As Part Of The Admission Process. Be Prepared To Discuss Your Research Interests And Why You Are A Good Fit For The Program.

Submit Online Application: Most Universities Have An Online Application Portal Where You Can Submit Your Application And Upload The Required Documents. Be Sure To Double-Check The Deadlines For Submission.

Pay Application Fee: Pay The Application Fee As Specified By The Institution. Some Programs May Offer Fee Waivers For Eligible Candidates.

Track Application Status: Monitor The Application Portal To Track The Status Of Your Application. Some Institutions May Provide Updates On Whether Your Application Is Under Review, Accepted, Or Declined.

Financial Aid And Scholarships: Explore And Apply For Any Available Financial Aid, Scholarships, Or Assistantships Offered By The Institution Or External Organizations.

Acceptance And Enrollment: If You Receive An Offer Of Admission, Carefully Review The Terms And Conditions. Follow The Instructions Provided For Enrollment, Including Any Required Deposits Or Documentation.

Prepare For Your Studies: Once Enrolled, Make Arrangements For Housing, Orientation, And Any Other Logistics To Ensure A Smooth Transition Into The Phd Program.

What Is The Eligibility For Phd In (Pharmaceutical Chemistry)

The Eligibility Criteria For A Phd Program In Pharmaceutical Chemistry May Vary Slightly From One Institution To Another. However, Here Are Some Common Eligibility Requirements You Can Expect:

Master's Degree: Typically, Candidates Applying For A Phd In Pharmaceutical Chemistry Are Required To Have A Master's Degree In A Related Field. This Could Include Fields Such As Chemistry, Pharmaceutical Sciences, Biochemistry, Or A Closely Related Discipline.

Bachelor's Degree: In Some Cases, Institutions May Consider Candidates With Exceptional Academic Performance And Research Experience, Even If They Hold Only A Bachelor's Degree. However, This Is Less Common And Often Requires Strong Letters Of Recommendation And A Well-Defined Research Proposal.

Academic Performance: Applicants Are Generally Expected To Have A Strong Academic Record, With A High Gpa (Grade Point Average) In Their Previous Degrees. The Specific Gpa Requirement May Vary By Institution.

Research Experience: Demonstrated Research Experience, Either Through A Master's Thesis, Research Projects, Or Publications, Is Often Highly Valued. This Indicates A Candidate's Ability To Engage In Original Research, A Key Component Of Phd Studies.

Letters Of Recommendation: Most Programs Will Require Letters Of Recommendation From Professors Or Professionals Who Can Speak To Your Academic Abilities And Research Potential. These Letters Help Provide Insight Into Your Suitability For The Program.

Statement Of Purpose: A Well-Crafted Statement Of Purpose Is Typically Required. This Document Outlines Your Research Interests, Career Goals, And Why You Are Interested In Pursuing A Phd In Pharmaceutical Chemistry At That Particular Institution.

Standardized Test Scores: Some Programs May Require Standardized Test Scores, Such As The Gre (Graduate Record Examination). Be Sure To Check The Specific Requirements Of The Program You Are Applying To.

English Language Proficiency: For International Applicants, Proficiency In English Is Crucial. Most Institutions Require Toefl Or Ielts Scores To Demonstrate Proficiency In Reading, Writing, Speaking, And Listening.

Interview (If Required): Some Institutions May Conduct Interviews As Part Of The Admission Process. This Gives Them The Opportunity To Assess Your Research Interests And Your Fit With The Program.

Specific Course Prerequisites: Certain Programs May Have Specific Prerequisite Courses That Applicants Must Have Completed Prior To Admission. These Prerequisites Are Typically Related To Chemistry And Pharmaceutical Sciences.

How Long Does It Takes To Complete A Phd In (Pharmaceutical Chemistry) Program

The Duration To Complete A Phd Program In Pharmaceutical Chemistry Typically Ranges From 4 To 6 Years. However, The Exact Timeline Can Vary Based On Several Factors:

Research Progress: The Primary Determinant Of How Long It Takes To Complete A Phd Program Is The Progress Made On Your Research. This Includes The Time Taken To Conduct Experiments, Gather Data, And Analyze Results.

Dissertation Or Thesis Completion: One Of The Key Milestones In A Phd Program Is The Completion And Defense Of Your Dissertation Or Thesis. This Process Can Take A Significant Amount Of Time, As It Involves Original Research And Scholarly Writing.

Publication And Presentation Requirements: Some Programs May Have Requirements For Publishing Research Findings In Peer-Reviewed Journals Or Presenting At Conferences. Meeting These Requirements Can Add To The Overall Timeline.

Coursework And Comprehensive Exams: The Coursework Component Of A Phd Program Can Vary In Length. Additionally, Some Programs Require Students To Pass Comprehensive Exams Before Advancing To The Research Phase.

Advisor And Committee Availability: The Availability Of Your Advisor And Thesis Committee Members Can Impact The Pace Of Your Research Progress. Scheduling Regular Meetings And Receiving Timely Feedback Is Crucial.

Funding And External Commitments: If You Have Teaching Or Research Assistantships, Or If You Have External Commitments, Such As Part-Time Work, These Can Affect The Time You Have Available For Your Research.

Personal Circumstances: Factors Such As Personal Commitments, Family Responsibilities, And Health Issues Can Influence The Pace At Which You Are Able To Complete Your Phd.

Institutional Policies: Some Institutions May Have Specific Policies Regarding The Maximum Duration Allowed To Complete A Phd Program. Be Sure To Be Aware Of And Adhere To Any Such Policies.

Thesis Review And Defense: The Process Of Submitting Your Thesis, Undergoing Review, And Defending It Before A Panel Of Experts Can Take Several Months.

What Are Potential Career Opportunities After Phd In (Pharmaceutical Chemistry)

After Earning A Phd In Pharmaceutical Chemistry, You'll Have A Wide Range Of Career Opportunities In Both Academia And The Pharmaceutical Industry. Here Are Some Potential Career Paths:

Academic Researcher/Professor: With A Phd, You Can Pursue A Career As A Researcher Or Professor In Universities And Research Institutions. This Role Involves Conducting Cutting-Edge Research, Publishing Findings, And Teaching Students.

Drug Discovery Scientist: Work In Pharmaceutical Companies To Discover And Develop New Drugs. This Role Involves Designing And Conducting Experiments To Identify Potential Drug Candidates.

Medicinal Chemist: Focus On Designing And Synthesizing Compounds With Medicinal Properties. Medicinal Chemists Play A Critical Role In Drug Development, Working Closely With Biologists And Pharmacologists.

Regulatory Affairs Specialist: Ensure That Pharmaceutical Products Comply With Regulatory Standards And Guidelines. This Role Involves Submitting Applications For Drug Approvals And Managing Regulatory Processes.

Clinical Research Scientist: Oversee And Conduct Clinical Trials To Evaluate The Safety And Efficacy Of New Drugs. This Role Is Crucial In Bringing New Pharmaceutical Products To Market.

Analytical Chemist: Analyze Pharmaceutical Compounds To Ensure Their Quality, Purity, And Stability. This Role Is Essential For Quality Control In The Pharmaceutical Industry.

Formulation Scientist: Develop Formulations For Drug Delivery Systems, Such As Tablets, Capsules, And Injectables. Formulation Scientists Work To Optimize The Delivery Of Pharmaceuticals To Patients.

Pharmaceutical Consultant: Offer Expertise To Pharmaceutical Companies On Various Aspects Of Drug Development, From Research Strategies To Regulatory Compliance.

Patent Examiner/Intellectual Property Specialist: Evaluate And Process Patent Applications Related To Pharmaceuticals. This Role Involves Understanding And Protecting Intellectual Property Rights.

Government Or Non-Profit Researcher: Work For Government Agencies Or Non-Profit Organizations Focused On Pharmaceutical Research And Public Health Initiatives.

Biotechnology Industry Professional: Contribute To Research And Development Efforts In Biotechnology Companies, Which Often Intersect With Pharmaceutical Research.

Project Manager In Pharmaceuticals: Oversee Drug Development Projects, Ensuring They Stay On Schedule And Within Budget. Project Managers Play A Critical Role In Bringing New Drugs To Market.

Entrepreneur/Start-Up Founder: Apply Your Expertise To Start Your Own Pharmaceutical Or Biotechnology Company, Developing Innovative Solutions To Address Healthcare Needs.

Scientific Writer/Editor: Share Your Knowledge And Expertise By Writing Scientific Papers, Reports, Or Educational Materials For Pharmaceutical Companies, Research Institutions, Or Publishing Houses.

Global Health And Policy Analyst: Analyze Healthcare Policies And Their Impact On Pharmaceutical Research, Development, And Access To Medicines On A Global Scale.

These Are Just Some Of The Many Career Options Available To Individuals With A Phd In Pharmaceutical Chemistry. The Diverse Skill Set Gained During Phd Studies Equips Graduates To Contribute To The Advancement Of Pharmaceutical Science And Improve Healthcare Outcomes.

Syllabus Of Phd In (Pharmaceutical Chemistry)

Phd In Pharmaceutical Chemistry: Semester-Wise Syllabus

Semester 1

Course 1: Advanced Organic Chemistry

Topics: Organic Synthesis, Mechanisms, Reactivity, And Stereochemistry.

Course 2: Physical Chemistry For Pharmaceutical Sciences

Topics: Thermodynamics, Kinetics, Quantum Mechanics, Spectroscopy.

Course 3: Research Methodology And Literature Review

Topics: Literature Search, Critical Analysis, Experimental Design.

Semester 2

Course 4: Medicinal Chemistry

Topics: Drug Design Principles, Structure-Activity Relationships, Lead Optimization.

Course 5: Analytical Techniques In Pharmaceutical Chemistry

Topics: Chromatography, Spectroscopy, Mass Spectrometry.

Course 6: Seminar On Current Topics In Pharmaceutical Chemistry

Topics: Recent Advancements In The Field, Guest Speakers.

Semester 3

Course 7: Pharmacology And Drug Action

Topics: Mechanisms Of Drug Action, Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics.

Course 8: Formulation And Drug Delivery Systems

Topics: Dosage Forms, Drug Release Mechanisms, Formulation Techniques.

Course 9: Elective Course (Specialized Topic)

Example Topics: Bioinformatics In Drug Discovery, Advanced Drug Synthesis.

Semester 4

Course 10: Advanced Spectroscopy And Analytical Techniques

Topics: Nmr, Ir, Uv-Vis, Advanced Analytical Methods.

Course 11: Regulatory Affairs And Intellectual Property

Topics: Fda Regulations, Patents, Ethical Considerations.

Course 12: Research Proposal Development

Topics: Proposal Writing, Research Design, Ethical Considerations.

Semester 5

Course 13: Dissertation Research (Part I)

Independent Research Under The Guidance Of An Advisor.

Semester 6

Course 14: Dissertation Research (Part Ii)

Continuation Of Independent Research.

Semester 7

Course 15: Thesis Writing And Defense Preparation

Writing, Editing, And Preparing For The Thesis Defense.

Semester 8

Course 16: Thesis Defense And Research Seminar

Presentation And Defense Of The Research Findings.

Internship Opportunities After Completing Phd In (Pharmaceutical Chemistry)

After Completing A Phd In Pharmaceutical Chemistry, There Are Several Exciting Internship Opportunities Available In Both Academic And Industrial Settings. These Internships Provide Valuable Hands-On Experience And The Chance To Apply Your Expertise In Real-World Scenarios. Here Are Some Potential Internship Options:

Postdoctoral Researcher: A Postdoctoral Position Allows You To Continue Your Research In A Specialized Area Of Pharmaceutical Chemistry. It's An Excellent Opportunity To Collaborate With Experienced Researchers, Publish Papers, And Gain Additional Expertise.

Industry Research Internship: Many Pharmaceutical Companies Offer Research Internships For Phd Graduates. These Positions Focus On Drug Discovery, Development, And Formulation. You'll Work Closely With Experienced Scientists On Cutting-Edge Projects.

Regulatory Affairs Intern: This Internship Involves Working With Regulatory Teams To Ensure Compliance With Government Regulations And Guidelines. You'll Gain Insight Into The Approval Process For New Drugs And Pharmaceutical Products.

Clinical Research Internship: If You're Interested In Clinical Trials And The Evaluation Of New Drugs, Consider An Internship In Clinical Research. You'll Assist In The Planning, Coordination, And Analysis Of Clinical Trials.

Analytical Chemistry Intern: Work In A Laboratory Setting, Focusing On The Analysis Of Pharmaceutical Compounds For Quality Control Purposes. This Role Is Crucial For Ensuring The Safety And Efficacy Of Pharmaceutical Products.

Formulation Development Intern: Gain Experience In The Development Of Drug Delivery Systems, Such As Tablets, Capsules, And Injectables. You'll Work On Optimizing The Delivery Of Pharmaceuticals To Patients.

Intellectual Property Intern: Assist In Patent-Related Activities, Such As Conducting Patent Searches, Preparing Patent Applications, And Evaluating Intellectual Property Issues.

Biotechnology Internship: Explore Opportunities In Biotechnology Companies Where You Can Contribute To Research And Development Efforts That Intersect With Pharmaceutical Research.

Government Agency Internship: Work With Government Agencies Like The Fda Or Other Regulatory Bodies. This Provides Insight Into Policy-Making, Regulatory Compliance, And Oversight Of The Pharmaceutical Industry.

Consulting Internship: Join A Consulting Firm That Specializes In Pharmaceuticals Or Life Sciences. This Role Allows You To Offer Your Expertise To Pharmaceutical Companies On Various Aspects Of Drug Development And Regulatory Compliance.

Global Health And Policy Intern: Contribute To Organizations Focused On Global Health Initiatives And Policies Related To Pharmaceuticals. This Internship Can Involve Research, Advocacy, And Policy Analysis.

Teaching Internship: If You're Interested In Academia, Consider A Teaching Internship At A University Or College. This Experience Can Help You Develop Your Teaching Skills And Gain Exposure To Academic Responsibilities.

Scholarships And Grants For Phd In (Pharmaceutical Chemistry)

There Are Several Scholarships And Grants Available To Support Students Pursuing A Phd In Pharmaceutical Chemistry. These Funding Opportunities Can Help Alleviate The Financial Burden Of Advanced Education And Research. Here Are Some Potential Options:

National Institutes Of Health (Nih) Grants: The Nih Offers A Variety Of Grants And Fellowships For Graduate Students In Biomedical And Pharmaceutical Sciences. This Includes The Ruth L. Kirschstein National Research Service Award (Nrsa) For Individual Predoctoral Fellows.

National Science Foundation (Nsf) Graduate Research Fellowship Program: This Program Provides Financial Support To Graduate Students Pursuing Research-Based Phd Degrees In Stem Fields, Including Pharmaceutical Chemistry.

American Association Of Colleges Of Pharmacy (Aacp) Student Scholarship Programs: Aacp Offers Scholarships For Pharmacy Students, Including Those Pursuing Advanced Degrees In Pharmaceutical Sciences And Related Fields.

American Foundation For Pharmaceutical Education (Afpe) Scholarships: Afpe Provides Scholarships To Support Students Pursuing Degrees In Pharmaceutical Sciences, Including Phd Programs.

American Chemical Society (Acs) Division Of Medicinal Chemistry Graduate Fellowships: These Fellowships Are Specifically Designed To Support Graduate Students Conducting Research In Medicinal Chemistry.

Phrma Foundation Predoctoral Fellowships: This Foundation Offers Fellowships To Support Students Pursuing Phd Degrees In Pharmaceutical Sciences. The Fellowship Covers Tuition And Provides A Stipend For Living Expenses.

Merck Graduate Science Research Dissertation Fellowships: Merck Offers Fellowships To Graduate Students In The Chemical And Biological Sciences, Including Pharmaceutical Chemistry.

Sigma Xi Grants-In-Aid Of Research: Sigma Xi Provides Grants To Support Research Projects In All Areas Of Science And Engineering, Including Pharmaceutical Chemistry.

Professional Associations And Societies: Many Professional Associations In The Field Of Pharmaceutical Sciences Offer Scholarships Or Grants. Examples Include The American Association Of Pharmaceutical Scientists (Aaps) And The International Society For Pharmaceutical Engineering (Ispe).

University-Specific Scholarships And Fellowships: Many Universities Offer Their Own Internal Scholarships And Fellowships For Graduate Students. These May Be Specific To The Department Or Program.

Research Assistantships And Teaching Assistantships: Many Phd Programs Offer Assistantship Positions That Provide A Stipend, Tuition Remission, And Sometimes Health Benefits In Exchange For Research Or Teaching Duties.

Corporate Sponsorships And Industry Fellowships: Some Pharmaceutical Companies Offer Funding Or Fellowships For Graduate Students Conducting Research Relevant To Their Areas Of Interest.

Conclusion

Obtaining A Phd In Pharmaceutical Chemistry Is A Significant Achievement That Opens Doors To A Wide Range Of Career Opportunities. It Allows Individuals To Contribute To The Advancement Of Pharmaceutical Science And Make A Positive Impact On Healthcare. If You're Passionate About Drug Discovery And Development, This Path Could Be The Perfect Fit For You.

FAQ's

Q: What Is A Phd In Pharmaceutical Chemistry?

A: A Phd In Pharmaceutical Chemistry Is An Advanced Research-Based Program That Focuses On The Study Of Drugs, Their Design, Synthesis, And Development. It Prepares Individuals For Careers In Academia, Research, And The Pharmaceutical Industry.

Q: What Are The Eligibility Criteria For A Phd In Pharmaceutical Chemistry?

A: Eligibility Typically Requires A Master's Degree In A Related Field, Strong Analytical And Research Skills, And A Passion For Advancing Pharmaceutical Science.

Q: How Long Does It Take To Complete A Phd In Pharmaceutical Chemistry?

A: The Duration Of A Phd Program In Pharmaceutical Chemistry Usually Ranges From 4 To 6 Years, Depending On Research Progress And Program Requirements.

Q: What Career Opportunities Are Available After Completing A Phd In Pharmaceutical Chemistry?

A: Graduates Can Pursue Careers In Academia, Research Institutions, Pharmaceutical Companies, Regulatory Agencies, And More. They Can Work As Researchers, Professors, Drug Discovery Scientists, Regulatory Affairs Specialists, And In Various Other Roles.

Q: Are There Internship Opportunities After Completing A Phd In Pharmaceutical Chemistry?

A: Yes, There Are Several Internship Opportunities Available, Including Postdoctoral Research Positions, Industry Research Internships, Clinical Research Internships, And More. These Provide Valuable Hands-On Experience In Research And Development.

Q: What Are Some Potential Funding Options For Phd Students In Pharmaceutical Chemistry?

A: Phd Students Can Explore Options Like Nih Grants, Nsf Fellowships, Scholarships From Professional Associations, University-Specific Funding, And Corporate Sponsorships.

Q: Can I Pursue A Phd In Pharmaceutical Chemistry With Only A Bachelor's Degree?

A: While Some Programs May Consider Exceptionally Qualified Candidates With A Bachelor's Degree, It Is More Common For Applicants To Hold A Master's Degree In A Related Field.

Q: What Are The Research Areas Covered In Phd Pharmaceutical Chemistry Programs?

A: Research Areas May Include Medicinal Chemistry, Pharmacology, Drug Design, Drug Synthesis, Formulation, Drug Delivery Systems, And More.

Q: What Is The Role Of A Postdoctoral Researcher After Completing A Phd In Pharmaceutical Chemistry?

A: A Postdoctoral Researcher Continues To Conduct Advanced Research In A Specialized Area, Often In Preparation For An Academic Or Industry Career.

Q: Can International Students Apply For Phd Programs In Pharmaceutical Chemistry In The United States?

A: Yes, International Students Are Eligible To Apply. However, They May Need To Meet Additional Requirements, Such As English Language Proficiency Tests.